Human beings often misinterpret, misremember, and even fabricate memories without realizing it. These inaccuracies can lead to ideological divides among friends and family, and they clarify why individuals can recall extensive details during congressional hearings or court cases about events that happened long ago. Even cherished memories from childhood may only capture the essence of what transpired, sometimes veering into completely incorrect territory.

Marianne Reddan, PhD, a Stanford researcher in psychology and neuroscience, states, “We never capture any memory perfectly. It’s a feature, not a flaw.”

Recalling a memory resembles opening a file on a computer for editing. As neurons linked to a specific memory activate, the recollection can either be strengthened or reshaped into something that does not accurately depict reality.

“This is a remarkable process,” Reddan explains. “If you learned to fear dogs because of a childhood bite, through memory reconsolidation, you can ‘unlearn’ that fear and foster joyful relationships with friendly dogs.”

Reddan emphasizes that memory is not intended to record every detail indefinitely. “Its main role is to help you anticipate and navigate the future.” However, this flexibility can lead to significant errors, ranging from harmless misconceptions to detrimental misunderstandings about critical issues like Covid-19.

Here are several reasons why our memories can fail, often in conjunction with one another.

1. Errors in Encoding and Recollection Memory begins with encoding, which involves the storage of sensory experiences. According to Julian Matthews, a cognitive scientist at Monash University, individual experiences and expectations shape how we perceive an event. Factors such as the level of attention paid or even the angle from which we view a situation can influence what we encode. For instance, one person might notice a crowd wearing masks, while another focuses on those without them.

Sometimes, people simply misremember events, regardless of how much time has passed. Nancy Dennis, PhD, a psychology professor at Penn State, points out that misremembering can occur at any age.

Consider a scenario where you attend multiple meetings in one day and forget who made specific comments. Or perhaps you believe you informed your partner about purchasing essential supplies, only to realize you did not. These instances illustrate false memories, which differ from ordinary forgetting.

2. Influence of Negative Emotions and Suggestion In a seminal 1974 study, participants who viewed clips of car accidents were asked to estimate the speeds of the vehicles. Those queried with the word "smashed" estimated higher speeds compared to those asked with the term "hit." Elizabeth Loftus, PhD, a leading figure in false memory research, led this investigation.

Loftus has demonstrated how easily false memories can be implanted. In one study, participants recalled a fictional event from their childhood after being told stories about their past. Astonishingly, 25% of individuals claimed to remember the fabricated incident.

Post-event suggestions can distort memories, whether through conversations or interrogations that introduce inaccuracies. In extreme cases, individuals may be led to falsely confess to crimes they did not commit. The Innocence Project has documented numerous cases where DNA evidence exonerated individuals who had admitted guilt in the face of misleading information.

Loftus asserts that no one is immune to the influence of suggestion. Even those with exceptional autobiographical memories can be susceptible to manipulation.

3. The Role of Misinformation Applying memory distortion to modern contexts, Loftus and colleagues studied the effects of fake news on public perception. In a referendum on abortion in Ireland, participants who encountered fabricated stories about campaign misconduct later claimed to remember events that never occurred.

Even when informed of the falsehoods, many clung to their incorrect memories, showcasing how readily fabricated details can be integrated into personal narratives.

4. Beliefs Shape Memories False memories are more likely to arise when misinformation aligns with a person's preexisting beliefs. In Loftus's fake news study, those in favor of legalizing abortion were more likely to recall inaccuracies about opposing views, a pattern that held true for both sides.

Murphy's ongoing research suggests that individuals opposing feminism were more likely to remember negative fabrications about the movement, while supporters recalled the opposite.

5. Gist vs. Verbatim Memories Brainerd notes that memory operates in two main forms: verbatim details and gist memories, which capture the overarching meaning of events. Over time, even verbatim memories can fade, leaving only the gist, which may become distorted as we try to recall specifics.

The brain organizes overwhelming information through gist memories, but this can lead to the creation of false memories as individuals fill in the gaps inaccurately.

The malleability of memory can have its benefits, Reddan mentions. For instance, envisioning a fear can alter its representation in the brain. A 2018 study indicated that imagining a threat in a safe space could reduce fear levels.

Understanding how we remember, misremember, and reimagine our experiences during the pandemic could greatly influence our future perspectives. Reddan expresses concern that heightened feelings of fear and disgust may linger long after the pandemic, affecting how we view past events.

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