Challenges with Subpar Genetics in Developing Nations

According to Steve Kemp, PhD, a professor at the University of Edinburgh, livestock in developing countries has been “selected for survival, but not much else.” Currently based in Kenya, Kemp leads livestock genetics programs at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), focused on enhancing food security and nutrition through improved livestock practices.

Animals are essential for human survival amid climate change, especially in developing regions where vulnerable populations rely on livestock in areas unsuitable for crop cultivation. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations reports that 60% of global agricultural land isn't suitable for crops but can support livestock. Animals exhibit greater resilience to climate shocks than crops, as they can be relocated during extreme weather events, unlike static crops.

Globally, at least 1.3 billion people depend on livestock for their livelihoods. However, climate-related disasters resulted in a 36% decrease in livestock productivity between 2006 and 2016. This trend could spiral into increased food insecurity and malnutrition, especially with an anticipated 2 billion additional people on the planet in the next 30 years. Feeding and clothing the world's most vulnerable populations will increasingly hinge on livestock production, with an expected 72% rise in meat production by 2030 compared to 1999 levels.

Yet, increased livestock comes with a downside: more greenhouse gas emissions. Currently, livestock accounts for 14.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions. The demand for more meat in the face of climate change may ironically exacerbate climate challenges, necessitating not just more livestock, but improved livestock.

Developed countries have made strides in this area. In the U.S., livestock contributes only 4% to total greenhouse gas emissions, partly due to significant reductions in herd sizes while production of meat and milk has increased through selective breeding.

Unfortunately, these breeding techniques have often failed in developing nations. “The history of animal breeding in Africa is riddled with failures,” Kemp notes. “Various attempts to introduce breeding expertise have repeatedly fallen short of establishing sustainable practices.”

A typical cow in the developing world may produce one to four liters of milk daily, a mere fraction of what an average dairy cow produces in developed countries. Beef and egg production in developed nations has consistently improved, while developing regions lag behind.

Kemp points out, “In East Africa, for instance, there’s a noticeable lack of progress in productivity metrics.” While subpar genetics play a significant role, other factors such as housing conditions, veterinary care, and nutrition also contribute to lower output. Smallholders, who produce about 80% of food in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, often find themselves trapped in a cycle of unproductive, unhealthy livestock. Breaking this cycle hinges on improving genetics, as “without potential, feeding them better won’t matter.”

One major hurdle in enhancing genetics is the supply chain—specifically, ensuring that the right sperm reaches the right female at the optimal time.

Artificial insemination (A.I.) is a common method of obtaining elite genetics through semen collection from superior males and breeding with females. A.I. has significantly improved livestock performance, particularly in the U.S. dairy sector.

To perform A.I., semen is collected from a male using an artificial vagina, which provides warmth and stimulation to induce ejaculation. In developed countries, elite bulls are housed specifically for semen collection, freezing, and distribution.

Once harvested, semen is stored in straws and kept in liquid nitrogen until a female in heat is ready for insemination. Most livestock breeding must occur within a narrow 12-hour window during ovulation. Many U.S. dairy farmers are trained to perform their own A.I., while others hire local technicians.

However, in developing nations like Africa, the A.I. process faces numerous challenges. Farmers may miss heat cycles if they don’t monitor their animals closely or keep detailed records. Centralized semen collection services are often lacking, and A.I. technicians face obstacles such as poor roads and high temperatures while preserving the cold chain for the semen. Consequently, many A.I. attempts fail, leading to financial losses for farmers.

Moreover, A.I. has not been widely employed for small ruminants, which are more crucial for smallholders in developing countries. The procedure is more invasive and requires skilled technicians, complicating the detection of heat cycles in goats and sheep compared to cattle.

ILRI has established community-based breeding initiatives for goats and sheep, encouraging farmers to collaborate and share their best animals to enhance local herds. While effective, these improvements are limited by the genetics of surrounding animals. With a surrogate sire program, genetics could be imported from anywhere in the world.

This is why goat #1962 is generating excitement.

“Distributing elite semen into potentially hundreds or thousands of males and sending them out as living, breathing carriers is revolutionary,” Kemp states. “They not only maintain semen quality but also determine precisely when it’s needed and deliver it.”

While U.S. farmers aren't facing such severe productivity crises, the potential for surrogate sires to enhance livestock efficiency remains significant, according to Oatley. They could improve the conversion of feed into meat, dairy, and fiber, which would greatly benefit U.S. agriculture.

“Reducing feed requirements means less land needs to be farmed for animal feed,” he explains.

CRISPR and the Quest for Sterility

The concept of surrogate sires represents a pivotal advancement in livestock reproductive strategies.

Any animal breeder will affirm that elite male genetics have the most substantial impact on herd quality. A single exceptional male can produce hundreds, if not thousands, of offspring annually. While females handle the majority of reproduction, they can only contribute genetics to a limited number of offspring.

Creating surrogate sires necessitates injecting stem cells into sterile males' testicles. If a male remains fertile, it will continue to produce its own sperm instead of the desired elite sperm. Historically, a significant challenge was finding a straightforward method to achieve sterility, as Oatley noted.

Previous attempts to reduce sperm production in mice involved radiation or chemotherapy; however, these methods were not feasible for livestock.

“There are welfare and biohazard concerns,” Oatley points out. “Applying chemotherapy to a 2,000-pound bull? Not practical.”

The breakthrough came with the introduction of the CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing tool. Oatley and his team successfully eliminated the fertility gene known as NANOS2 in mammals for the first time, resulting in so-called “knockout” males that are otherwise normal but sterile.

After generating sterile males—goat #1962 being one of five born in Oatley’s lab—the team injected donor sperm-producing stem cells into their testicles. As the goat's reproductive system matured, they confirmed that #1962 was capable of producing viable sperm, just not his own.

Navigating Regulatory Challenges

Oatley anticipates that the primary challenge in transitioning surrogate sires to farm-level production will arise from regulatory hurdles and public perception. Nevertheless, he believes time is of the essence.

“We must act. For civilization to endure and ensure food security, we must pursue these avenues,” Oatley states in a video produced by Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine. “As a society, we need to commit to this path.”

Further scientific work remains, particularly in enhancing sperm production levels, which has seen success in initial mouse trials. Oatley estimates it will take an additional one to two years to achieve similar results in goats and pigs, and three years for cattle. There’s also potential for surrogate sires in other animal species, including endangered ones. While they've only been created in mice, goats, pigs, and cattle, Oatley believes “there's no reason it wouldn't work in any mammalian species.”

However, he is more concerned about regulatory barriers and the public's negative perception of gene editing.

In the U.S., the Food and Drug Administration regulates gene-edited livestock, requiring extensive reviews before they can enter the food supply. Presently, there are no FDA-approved gene-edited livestock products available. A 2018 Pew Research Center study revealed that 49% of U.S. consumers view genetically modified foods as harmful to health.

Nevertheless, there are various methods for genetically modifying foods. CRISPR represents a highly precise approach, allowing for minor alterations, such as the insertion, deletion, or substitution of specific DNA segments. In contrast, traditional genetic engineering, which creates genetically modified organisms (GMOs), is generally less precise and often involves inserting genetic material from different organisms, raising concerns among critics. (Scientifically, organisms modified with CRISPR are also considered GMOs, although this term is often criticized.)

Oatley clarifies that his team did not use CRISPR to introduce foreign genetic material; rather, they executed a gene edit—sterility—that is both feasible and likely occurs naturally.

“We just don’t screen millions of animals to find them,” Oatley adds.

Moreover, concerns regarding the consumption of genetically modified foods are irrelevant in the context of the surrogate sire project. The gene editing was applied to create males specifically designed not to pass on their genes. The offspring, which are entirely normal, would enter the food supply, rather than the gene-edited surrogate sires themselves.

As the discussion surrounding genetically modified animals continues, goat #1962 will remain on hold. He is currently not authorized for breeding in a conventional farming setting, despite being engineered to assist humanity in that very capacity.