Chapter 1: The Genesis of Cooperation Among Scientists

What prompted scientists to collaborate? This intriguing inquiry, paired with Lorraine Daston's Rivals, compelled me to engage in a profound philosophical and historical exploration. However, I found myself disappointed, as the book did not fully satisfy my curiosity.

The text originates from a lecture by Daston, who dedicated years to research in various libraries. Unfortunately, the book reads more like a historical account with minimal analysis, particularly lacking in addressing the controversies surrounding modern science and scientists. This omission made me question the book's overall intent.

To begin with, the concept of a scientist is relatively recent; until about 300 years ago, they were known as natural philosophers. Furthermore, collaboration hinges on effective communication, which was significantly limited in earlier periods. For instance, Galileo had very few contemporaries with whom he could share ideas, let alone collaborate.

With advancements in communication and travel, scientists gradually connected with one another. However, their interactions ranged from competitive rivalry to cooperative teamwork. The reality is that both dynamics exist; a diverse array of personalities shapes the scientific community.

Daston revisits historical instances of international collaboration, albeit with mixed results. Early scientific endeavors often depended on the favor of monarchs, which introduced political complexities. A pivotal moment in communication came with the establishment of the Universal Postal Union in 1874, where postmasters from various countries convened in Switzerland to create a system for global mail delivery. This example illustrates the effectiveness of a dedicated working group, unencumbered by diplomatic protocols. Remarkably, the UPU's framework remains in use today, despite contemporary political tensions.

Since World War II, scientific conferences have fostered cooperation on global measurements and universal standards. Scientists now have the opportunity to network and share insights in person, bolstered by professional journals that promote peer-reviewed research. However, this system has faced challenges, including scandals involving fraudulent authorship and published papers, where countless individuals are listed as contributors to enhance their credentials.

The core of Daston's book focuses on two significant international projects from the late 19th and early 20th centuries: the cloud atlas and the astronomical map. Atmospheric scientists struggled to catalog clouds globally due to cooperation issues, standards, and funding hurdles. Politics often influenced these efforts, as seen when France insisted on publishing the cloud atlas in French.

Conversely, the astronomical map project succeeded, as astronomers worldwide coordinated their photographic efforts and adhered to established guidelines. The enthusiasm of participants and the unwavering dedication of the project leader, who traveled extensively to rally support, made a crucial difference.

These case studies feature individuals largely unknown to contemporary readers, whose contributions may seem trivial compared to today's collaborative research landscape. Daston notes that the number of scientists working together has surged to nearly four million globally. Collaboration has become intrinsic to the scientific process.

She attempts to create intrigue by suggesting that cooperation among scientists was far from certain, especially within national elite societies that prioritized national pride. However, following the Second World War, the World Meteorological Organization demonstrated that global systems necessitated shared data for understanding phenomena from ocean currents to weather patterns.

Daston argues that the scientific internationalism of the late 19th century did not endure through the World Wars, primarily due to nationalism. Yet, the demand for scientific inquiry has transcended borders, with modern collaborations facilitated by advancements in communication and transportation. The origin of a scientist's training is now less significant than the pursuit of knowledge itself.

She contends that the term "community" inadequately describes the fragmented and competitive nature of the scientific collective. Yet, the annual recognition of collaborative achievements illustrates that cross-continental cooperation is increasingly standard.

Another critical issue is the growing skepticism towards science globally. How did such perceptions arise, and how do international collaborations factor into this distrust? Daston refrains from addressing the critical dialogue on whether scientists can genuinely trust one another.

While the scientific realm undoubtedly operates within its own governance and recognition systems, the notion that scientists remain rivals is misleading. The pursuit of significant breakthroughs, such as curing diseases or combatting climate change, often necessitates leveraging resources from distant teams. When scientists act independently, they risk perpetuating fraud—like unverifiable claims of groundbreaking discoveries. Collaborative efforts provide essential checks on both reality and integrity.

Ultimately, I find little purpose in Daston's book, as it fails to engage with the pressing issues facing contemporary science.

David Wineberg

(Rivals, Lorraine Daston, October 2023)

Chapter 2: The Role of International Scientific Collaboration

In this section, we delve into the importance of international collaboration among scientists, especially in the wake of major global events.

The first video, "How do scientists work together? | California Academy of Sciences," highlights the dynamics of collaboration in the scientific community and its evolution over time.

The second video, "The responsibilities of scientists | Creating Our Future Together With Science | Nobel Prize," discusses the ethical considerations and responsibilities that come with scientific collaboration.